Teaching Speaking and Listening 'TEFL'

Teaching Speaking and Listening


The Importance Of Speaking And Listening
Good oral communication is essential to every aspect of life and work. Many surveys have identifi ed it as one of the skills most highly valued by employers. People with good communication skills:
• can relate well to colleagues and customers
• are able to get information they need from organisations
and individuals
• can explain things clearly and contribute to meetings
and discussions
• are more successful in their careers
• have more positive and productive relationships with others.
The challenge of teaching speaking and listening
Talk is the fi rst form of language most of us learn, but we are probably unaware of how we learnt it, or the level and types of skills we possess. We are almost certain not to have been taught the skills in a formal situation. When we talk, our mind is dealing with large amounts of information, and it is doing so with remarkable agility, speed and subtlety. The processes are dynamic and constantly change as new meanings emerge during an exchange. This is largely unconscious and we rarely refl ect on what it involves.
This is the principal challenge in teaching speaking and listening. In at least some areas, most of us will be operating at the level of both ‘unconscious competence’ and ‘unconscious incompetence’. That is, we may be very good, for example, at active listening or at adapting how we talk to different audiences, but may not know exactly why or be able to describe what we actually do – perhaps because we are not aware of the specifi c skills involved. We may also be unaware of those areas where we could benefi t from development. This toolkit has been developed with the belief that we can all improve our speaking and listening, and that developing greater self-awareness is the key to improving our ability in this area. It tries to make intuitive knowledge about language explicit and thus to promote clearer awareness of how to speak and listen effectively. Explicit teaching of speaking and listening provides an opportunity to use interesting and innovative approaches that learners will enjoy. The activities in the toolkit are designed to develop a range of interpersonal skills that will be of benefi t to learner throughout their lives. The toolkit is based on the following learning process:







There are a further seven sections in the toolkit.
• Identifying learners’ skills contains a self-assessment activity that raises
awareness of what’s involved in speaking and listening. It identifi es the learner’s
current skills and areas they may want to develop.
• Sensitivity to others focuses on the importance of empathy, trust and
respect in all oral communication.
• Speaking with individuals covers aspects of one-to-one communication
including asking questions, receiving visitors at work and non-verbal
communication.
• Listening focuses on the important skill of listening actively.
• Speaking in a group looks in detail at how to take part in meetings and
discussions effectively.
• Talking to a group aims to help develop learners’ confi dence and abilities in
giving a short talk or presentation.
• Getting more from the toolkit helps tutors and teachers extend their use
of the toolkit and use it as part of their continuing professional development.
Speaking and listening skills
Top 10 speaking and listening skills at work
Skills for Life: Make it your business (DfES 2004) lists the top 10 speaking and
listening skills needed in most places of work.
1 Respond to questions from colleagues and customers.
2 Follow verbal instructions.
3 Ask questions.
4 Greet colleagues and customers appropriately.
5 Talk to colleagues and customers, using appropriate and polite language.
6 Take verbal messages and pass them on to colleagues.
7 Use technical language.
8 Give verbal instructions or other information.
9 Contribute to meetings.
10 Contribute to training sessions.

What good speakers and listeners do
Spoken communication involves a wide range of behaviours and skills.
The list below is not exhaustive!

   A good speaker… And a good listener…
Relates to the listener Is easy to talk to
Is respectful of others Shows respect, focuses on the speaker
Encourages trust Makes supportive comments
Shows empathy Moves conversation along
Is purposeful and clear Knows when and how to interrupt
Uses appropriate vocabulary Concentrates and appears attentive
Speaks with fl uency Creates an atmosphere of trust
Is confi dent and credible Picks out the main points
Is approachable and responsive Reflects back and paraphrases
Uses body language well Understands feelings
Involves listeners Remembers



Characteristics Of Spoken Language

It is worth considering the key characteristics of spoken, as opposed to written,
language. These are that it:
• takes place in real time and space
• usually involves face-to-face communication
• involves speakers and listeners adjusting to context – for example, who,
when, where.
Speakers give shape and structure when they talk
• They explicitly signpost things for the listener using words such as ‘now’ and
‘so’ to indicate a change of topic.
• What is said can be meaningful even if it’s half-fi nished or seems incomplete.
Speakers often avoid over-elaborating and rely on mutual understanding
of the context.
• Single words or phrases such as ‘anyway’, ‘alright’ or ‘really’ can be
highly meaningful.
Speaking takes place in real time and place
• Spoken language is mostly unplanned because it usually happens with little
opportunity for advance planning or editing.
• Because they are unplanned, spoken exchanges tend to be open and fl uid.
Speakers can change direction and topic, return to things they’d forgotten,
insert anecdotes and so on.
• Spoken language is varied in style. Speakers can adapt and switch from one
level of formality to another as the situation demands.
Communicating face to face
• Speaking is essentially a collaborative and interactive process. It is an
exchange. We may fi nish each other’s comments, interrupt, disagree with or
extend what is said.
• Speakers get and give feedback as they talk and listen using comments like
‘Exactly’, ‘Right’, ‘Good’, ‘Oh I see’ and simple vocalisations such as ‘Mmmm’,
‘Uh’, ‘Oh’.

Speaking And Listening In National Standards
This toolkit is aimed primarily at work with learners from Entry level 3 to level 2. Here is how speaking and listening features in the national standards for adult literacy, the communication key skill and functional English.
From standards to teaching
The national standards are explicit and detailed, but closer reading can leave us
thinking that it’s all very well, but how do we teach these skills? They are complex
and interrelated and people are likely to use a combination of skills in any exchange.
In a paper presented to a symposium in 2006, John Vorhaus of the National Research
and Development Centre (NRDC) explained some of the diffi culties associated with
the speaking elements at level 2 of the adult literacy core curriculum:
All these elements represent laudable learning goals, and they are increasingly
called upon in a culture in which articulacy, clarity and associated interpersonal
attributes are at a premium. Still we can underestimate how distinctive some of
these elements are…If we want to recruit learners’ motivation, and to make the
most of teachers’ expertise, we need to have a secure grip on exactly what we
are expecting of them.
The two examples below give an idea of some of the diffi culties teachers can face
when trying to help learners meet the standards.
Example 1
‘Speak clearly and confi dently in a way which suits the situation.’ (Adult literacy
level 2)
‘Communicate clearly in a way that suits the situation and respond appropriately
to others.’


The Role Of Empathy And Respect

Empathy
Empathy is a very potent communication skill to possess. One dictionary definition is ‘being able to understand someone’s feelings as if they were your own’. And while that gets us so far, it doesn’t convey how precious genuine empathy is in bringing us together.
Empathy turns people around…to our side because we understand and respect where they’re coming from…away from anger because they know we’ve seen things from their point of view and valued their opinion...and they can accept our view more readily because we’ve treated them as a real person.
Empathy is the thing that gets us beyond our differences – age, sex, religious beliefs and race – to our similarities – our membership of the human race.
There are literally hundreds of occasions in a normal day when we should and
could show empathy. For instance:
• if a friend tells you that his partner has left him
• if your friend’s boss misses a deadline and your friend has to stay late to fi nish
her work because she didn’t receive the report on time
• if you damage something belonging to a customer and they tell you that it had
a high sentimental value for them
• if an appointment has been double-booked so Mrs Jones can’t have the perm
she wanted before her 60th birthday party.
In all these, a successful outcome would be where we have understood how the
other person felt and why it mattered to them – and we show it. So taking the
fi rst example, empathy is looking and sounding as if we know how it feels when a relationship ends. It isn’t sympathy. That would be if we said, ‘Oh dear…what a shame. Aaaaah!’ And apathy isn’t even an option – if we laughed, or said, ‘Sorry, tell me another time. Got to go and get a pizza.’



Respect
Respect is the esteem we show towards someone. If we don’t show respect, we are indicating that we do not care about them or value them or their views. We show respect in our behaviour, and a key element in that behaviour is the way we
communicate and show empathy. We need respect from other people, and they have a right to it from us.
Communicating feelings
Obviously, the words we utter do matter, but our actions, expressions, posture and physical behaviour convey more of the message than the words – as long as we can see the other party. Our tone of voice also has a really signifi cant effect, and this plays an even bigger part when we’re on the phone and cannot see the person we’re communicating with.
Tone of voice
A famous study by Albert Mehrabian explored the relative impact of facial expressions, tone of voice and spoken words. In one part of the study, subjects listened to words spoken in different tones and were then asked to assess what the speaker really meant. The results showed that tone carried more meaning than the individual words themselves. You can try it for yourself. Find someone to listen to you and say ‘Fascinating’ so it sounds like you really are interested. Then say it again with a heavily sarcastic edge. Now ask them what message each one conveyed. What were you really saying?
Body language
Body language is one aspect of the non-verbal communication that we use all the time – often on a subconscious level. We subconsciously ‘read’ whether someone is angry or approachable, attentive or preoccupied, happy or sad, from the way they walk, stand, sit or look at us. People start forming impressions of us as soon as they meet us. And our posture, facial expression, eye contact and gestures speak louder than our words. They send out clear signals about our interest, openness and attentiveness, and express what is going on inside. They give clues about whether our words are consistent with what we are really feeling. Being aware of our body language can allow us to send a consistent message. Smiling, making eye contact, using open gestures and using good posture can convey interest, empathy, respect and openness. There is a handout for learners summarising the main principles of sensitivity to others on the next page.
Sensitivity to others
An important part of being a good listener and speaker is being sensitive to other people. Sensitivity is not just about being good, gentle and kind to people.
The main principles are:
• empathy
• respect
• communicating your feelings through your tone of voice and
body language.
Empathy
If you can empathise with someone else, you can understand their feelings as if they were your own. Empathy is not the same as sympathy. For example: a friend tells you that his girlfriend has left him. If you are being empathetic, you ask him how he’s feeling and listen carefully to what he says. Being sympathetic means you would say, ‘Oh, I’m sorry to hear that, what a shame’ but wouldn’t bother to try and understand how he feels.
Respect
This is the regard or esteem you have for someone else. If you behave in a respectful way to others, you show that you care about them or value their views.
Communicating feelings
What you say and how you say it are important but your behaviour can make all the difference in how you show your sensitivity to others. Choosing the right words, using an appropriate tone of voice and your expressions, posture and general body language all play a part in communication.
Tone of voice
How you say something can show your true feelings and your voice can give real meaning to your words.


Body language
Everyone uses body language all the time and doesn’t often pay much attention to it. It includes your posture, gestures, facial expression and eye contact. When you are aware of your own body language, you can use it to help you communicate with others.

Speaking with individuals

Introduction
Most of the speaking that takes place at work is on a one-to-one basis so it’s valuable to raise learners’ awareness of what happens when we talk with individuals. Learners need to know what makes a conversation effective – such as appropriate language and tone of voice.
Purpose and audience
It’s easy to talk to another person without thinking or without any particular aim. So the fi rst thing a learner needs to think about is why they need to address another person. What is the purpose? They may need to ask a question, give
information or respond to a question. Conversations are affected by the relationship between the speakers. If it’s the boss or a client, the speaker may need to adopt a very different vocabulary, tone and body language than if they’re speaking to a colleague or friend.
An effective speaker will think about:
• their relationship to this person within or outside the organisation
• how formal or informal the speaking should be
• what the other person knows about the topic already
• what they need to know
• how this dialogue will affect them.
Discussing examples, experiences and case studies is probably the best way of
raising awareness both of the complexities of the communication process and of
how to adjust communication so that it is appropriate to both the individual and
the situation.
Thinking and planning
It’s easy to speak before thinking. Advice to learners should be stop and think
before speaking! There are good reasons for this: the speaker is less likely to
become muddled or give an incomplete account and ideas can be presented
logically. Pausing and reasoning can also help to calm any emotions such as
anger or fear that might make the dialogue less effective.
What’s in a dialogue?
Part of having an effective dialogue with someone else is being able to identify the intentions of the other person. Is this going to be a friendly exchange, a formal instruction, a question or a complaint? This may be gauged by past experience, facial expression, posture, tone of voice, periods of silence and so on. The learner should use these clues but not pre-judge the situation as this can lead to using negative body language or tone. Picking up the nuance of the situation at the beginning is important, and young people can fi nd this diffi cult. Adults will often ‘soften’ language by using suggestion rather than instruction, and this may not be picked up. Here’s a real example from a training provider.

Teaching points
Mutual respect
An important ingredient in any good dialogue is respect. We have already touched on this in the previous section on sensitivity to others, but it is worth reminding learners of the part respect must play when speaking to other people. As a teacher, you can model this to your learners, by listening to their views carefully and taking their comments seriously.
Confidentiality
Learners will sometimes be involved in discussions in which confi dential information is dealt with. Many organisations will have policies about client, service user and employee confi dentiality and learners should fi nd out about these and become familiar with them. It will be helpful for learners if you can raise the topic and talk to them about what kind of information is usually kept confi dential and how to maintain others’ privacy. It’s important to remind learners that, if they are speaking to a customer, they will need to show their company in the best light. This may sometimes mean that full details of a situation are not shared. Gossip can lead to a lack of confi dentiality and you could demonstrate how damaging gossip can be by asking learners for examples or discussing some situations or case studies.

Assertiveness
Being assertive is about using a positive and clear style without being aggressive. Does the learner feel able to ask questions or make comments without feeling incompetent or stupid? Can they stand up for themselves if a co-worker is rude or unreasonable? It’s important to be honest and direct, but at the same time to respect the feelings and rights of other people. Guidance on assertiveness as well as an assertiveness self-assessment questionnaire for learners are included in this section.
Listening
Being able to listen attentively is just as important as being able to speak clearly and informatively. The next section of the toolkit covers this in detail.

Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal behaviour is a powerful communication tool and something we all
use all of the time. Much of the time we use this behaviour in an unconscious
way, and this makes it a form of communication which can be very revealing
about our thoughts, moods and feelings. The more aware we are of our nonverbal
behaviour, the more we can control our communications with other
people and also use our knowledge to interpret their thoughts and feelings.
Non-verbal behaviour includes any type of communication which is not speech.
It includes:
• vocal signals
• body language
• personal presentation.
This guidance gives some more detail about each of these ways of communicating
and some hints about how to interpret them. It is important to encourage learners
to think about the overall picture they can build up from someone’s non-verbal
communication, as well as their verbal communication. It is vital to remember that
non-verbal communication can be open to a range of interpretations and that
analysing just one element in isolation could be misleading.
Vocal signals
This means the tone or pitch of voice used when speaking. How we say
something can give the listener a good indication of how we feel. For example:
• a high-pitched tone might be used when someone is excited, happy or
perhaps stressed
• a raised voice can show anger but also frustration or irritability
• a serious message is usually conveyed in a low-pitched tone.
We also use sounds when speaking with others such as ‘Mmm’, ‘Aha’, ‘Er’ and
these too can show how we are feeling, whether we are interested, bored, alert,
tired, etc. The section on listening goes into more detail about how to use these
sounds to good effect when in conversation with others.
Mixing non-verbal messages is something that is easily done, but our vocal
signals can betray our true feelings. For example, asking a colleague how they
are feeling but using a bored tone shows a lack of interest in them.

Body language
Body language can encompass a range of elements, including:
• gestures
• posture
• facial expressions
• eye contact
• body contact
• personal space.
Gestures can include use of hands, head and body. It can be easy to interpret
gestures such as pointing and nodding but there are more complicated ones too.
It is important to point out to learners that, as with vocal signals, some types of
body language can mean more than one or even a range of things.
Posture is a key part of non-verbal communication and, along with our tone of voice, can be one of the fi rst ways we make an impression on others. Walking into a room with upright posture and head up, ready to make eye contact, will convey a message of confi dence. We can also check others’ posture for clues: someone slouching in their chair at a meeting gives the impression that they are bored or not listening.
Facial expressions are often very informative about how people feel. Once people are skilled at controlling their expressions, however, we may need to look at other non-verbal cues.
Eye contact is something that many people fi nd hard to make in formal situations or when meeting people for the fi rst time. It will help your learners when they find out that they don’t need to maintain eye contact with their listener or audience all the time. They should also be aware that eye contact can be considered rude in some cultures and might be diffi cult for people with a visual impairment. You can give learners some useful tips.
• Make eye contact at the start of the conversation or meeting.
• Avoid locking eyes and staring at the other person continuously – this can appear threatening in some situations.
• Look at the person during the conversation but break eye contact by looking at your notes or at the activity you are doing.
Body contact can be a very tricky area indeed and, while learners need to be aware of this and how to interpret others’ contact, they should take great care to avoid physical contact with customers, colleagues and managers. Other people making physical contact with us can be very powerful:
• touching our arm to get our attention or underline a point
• an arm around the shoulders to congratulate or comfort someone
• a prodding fi nger showing aggression.
Learners in social, care, health or education workplaces will have very specifi c guidelines to follow about body contact with customers or service users and your discussions may need to incorporate these rules. There is one piece of body contact, however, that you should encourage your learners to practise, and that is a firm handshake. This is an important part of the first impression they could make on someone, so build their confi dence by getting them to practise this with each other and yourself.

Personal space is also a complex element of non-verbal behaviour and open to different interpretation, particularly if people are from a mix of cultures where the amount of space means something different to different people. It is best described as literally the space we need around ourselves to feel comfortable in the company of others. This can be the space between you and a customer when standing looking at a product, or the space between the chairs at a meeting. The
general rule to discuss with learners is to avoid standing too close to someone as it can seem threatening and feel overwhelming but also to avoid being too distant and appearing disinterested.

1 Gestures
Use the list in the way that suits your learner(s) and the situation. Once the
learners have linked the gesture with the meaning, discuss the topic with them.
Questions could include:
• Which gestures do you use at work a lot?
• Are there any gestures you will now try to avoid?
• Which gestures did you observe in others?
2 Posture
As with the section on gestures above, the checklist can be used fl exibly and
reviewed with learners to infl uence their own use of posture.
3 Facial expressions
Use the checklist below as you wish. An additional easy activity to do with your learners is to ask them to practise positive and negative facial expressions in pairs – one person could talk about something that interests them while the other makes a range of expressions. Ask the speaker how the expressions made them feel

Assertiveness
Assertiveness is a vital communication and life skill. Learning how to be assertive can:
• increase people’s confi dence and self-esteem
• help gain the respect of others
• improve decision-making and problem-solving abilities
• enable people to handle confl ict if it occurs. Lack of assertiveness can affect relationships and quality of life because people end up not getting what they want and have a right to expect.

What is assertiveness?
An assertive attitude says: ‘I matter and you do too.’
Assertiveness is a way of relating to the outside world, backed up by specifi c oral communication skills. To be truly assertive a person needs to see themselves as being of worth and having a right to enjoy life. At the same time they value others equally and respect their right to have an opinion and to enjoy themselves. Assertiveness is the ability to express feelings, opinions, beliefs and needs directly, openly and honestly. It means doing this in a way that does not violate other people’s personal rights or humiliate them in any way.
Basic rights
Before someone can be assertive and comfortably express their opinions, needs and wishes they must believe that they have a legitimate right to do so. This means that they must believe:
• ‘I have the right to do anything which does not affect the rights of others.’
• ‘I have the right to ask for what I want.’
• ‘I have the right to my own values, beliefs and opinions.’
• ‘I have the right to say I don’t understand.’
• ‘I have the right to tell others how I wish to be treated.’
• ‘I have the right to make mistakes.’
• ‘I have the right to change my mind.’
• ‘I have the right to say “No”.’
• ‘I have the right to like myself – even though I’m not perfect.
Other ways of relating to others
There are two other main ways of relating to others: being passive or being aggressive.
Being passive means allowing the needs, opinions and judgements of others to become more important than your own. People sometimes think that asserting their rights and needs means being selfi sh, but this is not true.
Being aggressive means expressing your rights at the expense of others and not recognising that they have equal rights. Aggression can result from bottling up feelings which eventually explode – leaving no space for communication. Assertiveness is a path through the middle of these two extremes: neither overbearing nor weedy, this attitude to communication is characterised by directness, clarity and fi rmness, anchored in respect for others and for yourself.
How to be assertive
No one can become assertive overnight. Knowing what it is and how it can benefit us or deciding to become more assertive is only the starting point. Becoming more assertive involves changing behaviour patterns that have built up over years. It can be frightening the fi rst time we react differently to a situation – even something small like saying that you can’t work late can be daunting.
Body language
An important part of assertiveness is open, secure body language. Actually practising standing in an assertive way can make it much easier for people to be assertive. Passive body language is the classic ‘victim’ stance of hunched shoulders, avoiding eye contact. An aggressive stance could involve clenched fi sts, pointing fingers, staring eyes or standing too close to the other person’s ‘comfort zone’. Assertive people generally stand upright but in a relaxed manner, looking people calmly in the eyes with an open posture. Helping learners to know how it feels to be assertive can help them to recognise that it can be part of them. Just standing in a confident, calm way can be empowering.


Dealing With Conflict

A conflict arises when you have a disagreement with someone else that you fi nd hard to resolve. Learners may have experienced confl ict at work if they have found it hard to get along with a colleague, feel they have an unsympathetic boss or have found their work criticised. You may wish to ask learners for examples from their workplace or discuss some scenarios with them to avoid focusing on their personal situations.
Ways to deal with confl ict
There are three main ways that we can deal with conflict. We can:
• avoid the confl ict – deny that it exists or avoid the people with whom there is conflict
• diffuse the conflict – deal only with minor points but not tackle the major issues
• face the conflict – admit that it exists and start a dialogue.
To resolve conflict, people must be prepared to have a dialogue – to listen to
the other person’s point of view and state their own case in a calm manner. The power of the calm voice is not to be underestimated! Talk to your learners about times when they might have tried to avoid or diffuse confl ict rather than facing it.
Picking up non-verbal clues
As with all dialogue, it’s important to take clues from the other person’s nonverbal communication, and to be aware of your own. To show that you are open to discussion you need to adopt an open body posture: make sure that you haven’t got your arms crossed or an angry expression on your face. Relax and be friendly. Maintain eye contact, and nod your head to show that you are listening and that you can appreciate what they are saying. There are a number of activities you can try with your learners to help them identify and practise using positive non-verbal communication.


Asking Questions

A significant part of speaking with others involves the skill of asking questions. This sounds deceptively simple but the questions need to be:
• relevant
• timely
• appropriate.
Learners will need practice in asking questions which suit the subject, slotting them into a conversation without interrupting and also using open, closed or supplementary questions, as explained below. Good questioning skills will bring learners a range of benefi ts. They can:
• help to overcome shyness when meeting people for the fi rst time
• show interest in the other person
• promote thinking skills, by questioning a situation or what others are saying
• assist in the tasks of fact fi nding and problem solving.
The benefi ts of open questions
While learners are practising their questioning techniques they may initially
rely on closed questions which won’t get them very far and will close down a
conversation or exchange quite quickly.
This guidance shows you how to give your learners experience of the advantages
of asking open questions in order to fi nd out more and extend a conversation.
Begin by showing learners the difference between types of questions.
Open questions
Discuss the benefi ts of this type of question. For example, they can be used to:
• start a conversation
• allow the other person to tell you what they think and feel
• get information from someone
• establish empathy
• encourage the other person to express their opinions and feelings
• find out more about someone’s experiences.
Use some of the examples below and then get learners to come up with their own.
• ‘How would you like your hair today?’
• ‘What problems are you having with your car?’
• ‘How would you feel about swapping shifts with me?’
• ‘Which products are you interested in?’
• ‘What colour scheme do you have in mind?’
• ‘What happened at the meeting with your boss?’
Because of their particular uses, open questions are extremely valuable when dealing with customers and other people in the workplace. When using open questions, however, it’s important to make sure that people are given enough time to answer; they may need to think fi rst. If they sound confused, the question may need to be put in a different way: for example, ‘How do you…?’ might be changed to ‘Can you explain to me how to…?’
Closed questions
These are useful when you need:
• precise facts
• to check details
• a yes or no answer.
Examples are:
• ‘What time was that?’
• ‘Which one do you like?’
• ‘Are you free tomorrow?’
• ‘Did you go?’
The limitations of closed questions
You could ask your learners to fi nd out some information from each other or you but only by asking closed questions. Topics could include:
• hobbies
• holidays
• job responsibilities
• what you did over the weekend.

This exercise will quickly reveal how limiting this type of question can be and demonstrate that, without being able to use open or supplementary questions, it’s very hard to fi nd out much.
Supplementary questions
These can also be described as ‘encouraging’ or ‘follow-up’ questions which are
designed to keep the conversation going and to elicit more detail.


Speaking ‘Sloppily’ Is Essential To Good Communication

Ron Carter from the University of Nottingham has carried out research that gives us some fascinating insights into the real nature of spoken English – and how different it can be from written English. First, here is an item from the Times Educational Supplement (March 2003).










Written versus spoken words
He argues that for centuries the written word has been given too much importance, and that this has not helped us to develop effective listening and speaking skills in everyday life. In recent decades, however, spoken language has become increasingly important and has even begun to infl uence the written language, mainly via the widespread use of spoken forms in texts and email.
Spoken English databases
Another signifi cant development is the arrival in the late 20th century of extensive databases of spoken English. These have increased our knowledge of the real forms and uses of everyday spoken English enormously – thanks to the databases we can now see, for example, which words are used most frequently (see the word frequency lists on page 126, taken from the 700 million word Cambridge International Corpus (CIC)).


The importance of ‘vague’ and ‘sloppy’ words
The CIC word frequency lists for spoken and written English make interesting reading. As we see, the word ‘yeah’ features at number 8 in the top 40 frequent spoken words, but does not appear at all in the written English frequency list. In fact, ‘yeah’ is used more to show that the listener is ‘following’ the conversation than to show agreement with what is being said. ‘Mm’ and ‘er’ appear at numbers 15 and 17 in the spoken list respectively. Ron Carter says that, although these ‘words’ would not be allowed in Scrabble, nonetheless they are so frequent and important in spoken English (essential in showing hesitation, pauses and agreement) that they appear in the top 40. These words and others like them are also used in conversation to establish power relationships. For example, a boss who says ‘Ah well’ or ‘Okay’ to an employee can (according to tone of voice) interrupt, change the subject, assume agreement or control the length of the conversation. There is no punctuation in spoken language so we use phrases such as ‘First of all…’, ‘And so…’, ‘Going back to…’ to structure communication, making it more effective. ‘Well’ occurs nine times more frequently in the spoken rather than the written language, as a way of punctuating what is being said. Even in formal talk, speakers use ‘now’ and ‘so’ to mark a new ‘stage’ in what they are saying. Handling these ‘markers’ well is an important skill. Ron Carter also identifi es ‘purposefully vague’ words and phrases such as ‘it’s like’, ‘you know’, ‘that kind of thing’, ‘stuff’ and ‘whatever’ as another key element of spoken English: they soften informal speaking and make it less direct, in a way that is unnecessary in writing. We also tend to leave out some of the more ‘obvious’ words – for example, ‘Loads to tell you about!’ rather than ‘I’ve got loads to tell you about.’ Though often considered a sign of ‘sloppy’ language, his central point is that these phrases are actually essential to good communication, when used carefully and intentionally. He regards them as a vital speaking skill in many aspects of everyday life, including the workplace. Interestingly, these forms are working their way into some types of writing, as informality becomes more common. Jamie Oliver is quoted as an example of this trend: his recipes read like an email. Magazine articles have become chattier. Ron Carter suggests that this trend is a sign of cultural change: people are speaking to each other more as equals.
What does this mean for teaching and learning?
In conclusion, he offers some useful advice.
• We shouldn’t judge speakers by the standards of the written language – we don’t speak in sentences, for example.
• Words and phrases such as ‘Yeah’ and ‘I mean’ are crucial to building and maintaining relationships when speaking and listening. So is purposeful vagueness.
• Recording and transcribing conversations helps learners to develop language awareness and noticing skills. For example, they can identify words that signal active listening. Access to English databases online can be very motivating here.
• Learners benefi t from exploring, analysing and refl ecting upon their own
speaking and listening experiences.
• Learners should be assessed on informal as well as formal speaking skills.

Listening
Listening at Work
There are many situations in which a learner will need to listen. At work they will be:
• given instructions – perhaps about a piece of equipment or a procedure
• taking messages – from customers or colleagues
• involved in meetings – where key facts and decisions will be discussed
• learning new skills or techniques – by listening and observing more
experienced colleagues
• dealing with customers or service users – who may not be very clear or
have a problem or complaint.

Some people fi nd it hard to retain information, to concentrate or to ignore all the other stimuli around them. The activities in this section will help learners to listen attentively to instructions, ask questions while listening and identify the main points of what they’ve heard. The section also looks at what’s meant by ‘active listening’ and the role of non-verbal communication.

A Good Listener
First, it’s important to be clear about what a good listener actually does. What makes someone good at listening is a consistent behaviour pattern. They do the same things each time – and they are tangible and teachable. Good listeners:
• show that they are listening by making sound prompts (‘Uhuh’, ‘I see’, ‘Yes’)
and by their body language (nodding, facial expression, eye contact)
• show that they understand by refl ecting back what the person said, either in the
person’s own words or by paraphrasing (‘So you said that your cab was late…’)
• show that they have got beyond the words to the real feelings behind the
statement (‘So you were getting worried about missing the appointment when your cab was late’)
• ask questions to check their understanding and dig further for clarifi cation
• know what type of question to ask – when to ask a closed question (‘What time did the cab arrive?’) or an open question (‘So, what happened?’) when looking for different types of information
• concentrate and cut out distractions to be able to focus on the person speaking.

Starting Point
The starting point for helping a learner to improve their listening skills is awareness of both self and others. Ask them, either individually or in groups, to think about someone they know who they would describe as a ‘good listener’. Then ask them to consider what this person does that makes them say this. The learners can then think about how the way they listen is similar to or different from this person.

Active Listening

If you feel you have something important to say but no one listens to you properly, it can be upsetting and frustrating. Active listening is a way of paying attention to other people so that they feel you understand what they are saying. Active listening means listening for a purpose, perhaps to get information or to solve a problem, but it can also involve simply showing support or taking an interest in how a person feels. Listening is a skill which is usually taken for granted, but it is a very important part of oral communication – it makes a real difference to any exchange. And it can be improved and developed, provided we are aware of how a good listener behaves.
How can you show that you are listening actively?
• Set aside what you are doing in order to concentrate on the speaker.
• Make sure that your mind is focused so that you can give the speaker your
full attention.
• Make eye contact with the speaker from time to time.
• Sit where you can be seen without the person having to turn to you to
see you – arrange chairs so that you are at a slight angle, where each of
you can comfortably see the other one.
• Sit close enough for comfort and so that you can easily be heard without having to raise your voice. Check whether the distance between you feels comfortable for both of you. Remember that people vary in the amount of ‘personal space’ they need.
• Be quiet – if you don't interrupt, it will encourage the other person to speak.
• Nod your head and accept what they say.
• Use expressions like ‘I see’, ‘Yes’ and ‘Mmm’.
• Check your understanding from time to time. Say, ‘So you mean…?’
• Paraphrasing – this doesn’t just mean repeating what the person has said
but putting it into your own words.
• Maintain eye contact with the person you are talking to – but do not stare at
them so intently that they begin to feel uncomfortable.
• Use ‘open’ body language, such as leaning forward, facial expressions and
gestures that show you are actively listening and interested.
• Ask ‘open questions’. These are questions that encourage the person to share their thoughts and feelings, rather than give ‘Yes’, ‘No’ or one- or two-word answers.
• Try to really ‘hear’ what the speaker is attempting to say, including any emotion behind it. Avoid jumping to conclusions or judging people.
Sometimes people listen selectively – only picking up on what they want to hear,
focusing on information that backs up their point of view; they may think they
know in advance what the speaker is going to say. Some learners are very good
at pretending to listen (something we may all have done at school or at some time
in our lives). While it’s good to show that you are listening by making encouraging sounds, nodding your head or asking questions, some people can interrupt too much. Or they feel the need to argue or express their own opinions before the speaker has time to fi nish. A good listener maintains the fl ow by giving the speaker time to talk and organise their thoughts.

You’re not listening!
People can tell when someone isn’t listening to them actively even if they can’t put their finger on the precise reason. Someone who isn’t listening might show it by:
• looking away from the speaker or having a glazed expression
• their sitting or standing position – for example, slumped in a chair
• ‘closed’ body language such as folded arms
• looking at their watch, yawning, tapping their fi ngers or fi dgeting
• shrugging their shoulders.

Speaking in a group

A clear purpose
Being clear about the purpose of a discussion or meeting will help learners
decide what they should say, how to say it and perhaps when to say it. At work,
discussions are often a medium for getting things done. Learners need to know
what any discussion is aiming to do. For example, is it to pass on information
about clients in a care home from one shift to another? Or is it to work in a group
to plan a way of scheduling a particular job so that it gets done effi ciently?
Once the purpose is clear it is much easier for an individual to see how they can participate and make their contribution. For example, if they are the person passing on information, they will contribute best by organising what they need to say, speaking clearly and making sure that other people have understood. If they are planning a task together, they will need to recognise the importance of
listening carefully so that they can act on what has been agreed.

Listening attentively
Usually much more time is spent in a group listening to what other people say rather than speaking. Listening is a way of fi nding things out: a good listener works out what the speaker wants to say and the purpose of their contribution. Good listening involves both listening closely and identifying the speaker’s intentions.
• Listening closely – and showing it. Paying attention and listening closely means tuning in to what the other person thinks or feels (which may mean tuning out your own thoughts and feelings). An active listener shows that they are listening in the way they sit or stand in relation to the other person. They are likely to ask questions to check what they have heard and to summarise what has been said.
• Identifying the speaker’s intentions – and responding appropriately. What does the speaker want to happen as a result of what they have said? Intentions may be expressed by the speaker’s tone of voice or manner rather than their words. It is important to be able to recognise when someone is signalling that they feel irritated or upset, so that the response can be appropriate. In some cases – such as when dealing with a complaint – this can be diffi cult.

Using The Right Language and Tone of Voice
Learners need to speak clearly, at the right volume and in an appropriate tone of voice. Some people fi nd one or more of these diffi cult, and while they can all be practised, improvements can take time and may be closely bound up with a person’s self-confi dence. Mumbling or speaking too loudly is often a sign of anxiety or lack of confi dence. If someone ‘strikes the wrong note’, it may be
because they lack the experience to judge a more suitable one. It is therefore important to give learners chances to practise – for example, by providing opportunities for them to talk in different contexts, so that they get used to describing things, explaining the reasons for them or how they work, expressing their own ideas, etc. You can suggest ways of extending vocabulary, perhaps by trying out words and expressions they have heard other people use or by building up lists of technical words.

Making Appropriate Contributions
When learners do get an opportunity to speak in a discussion or meeting, it
is essential that what they say is appropriate in response to others, as well as to the situation and the point of the discussion. Again, this skill takes time to develop. The activities in this section therefore aim to tackle this in a variety of ways to give plenty of opportunities for practice.

Getting Started
With a new group, or a group who do not have much experience of discussion, it can help to begin with some simple and enjoyable activities which will help them get to know each other and start talking.

Different approaches to discussion

Different formats
There are a number of different formats for a discussion which you could try out with your learners.
• Debate – usually two points of view are put forward and then discussed by the
whole group.
• Panel – an audience listens to and then questions a number of people discussing a topic.
• Forum – everyone has an active role in the discussion.
• Pairs – one-to-one discussions which are less threatening to start with than larger groups.
• Snowball or pyramid – learners work in pairs, then fours, then eights and so on.
• Small groups.
• Free discussion.
• Controlled discussion.
• Step-by-step – a type of controlled discussion which is guided with questions.
Selecting which type of framework for discussion will depend on who will take part in the group discussion and how well they will interact – if you have new learners reluctant to speak up in a group, you might start with pairs work and then build up to small groups and free discussion. Your decision will also be infl uenced by the aims or subject of your discussion. Being clear about the degree of formality required is essential.

Agreeing Ground Rules

Teams that meet regularly may well have already worked out their ground rules and these may not always be apparent to learners joining the group. Encouraging learners to think through rules that they might apply to a group discussion can help them look out for this kind of agreement in their own workplace. These are three examples.
• Allow each person to speak without interruption.
• Listen to each other carefully.
• Give time for others to ask questions.

Recognising Barriers
It is important to be aware of some of the barriers that can inhibit someone from speaking in a group. While learners may feel that their own shyness or lack of experience is the main barrier to speaking in a group, it can be helpful to refl ect on the range of things that can get in the way of effective group discussions. This will alert learners to how others are feeling and promote their confi dence in taking part. These are some of the barriers to effective communication.

Language
• Use of technical language or jargon excludes those not ‘in the know’ – many
employment sectors have their own jargon.
• Language may be used inappropriately – for example, informal language that is
used in a formal setting and vice versa.
• A participant may not have English as their fi rst language.

Environment
• A noisy environment can make it hard to hear what others are saying and can be
distracting – think of a meeting held in a busy sales offi ce or in a repair shop.
• Other environmental factors, including heat, light, lack of space or lack of
facilities, can have an effect.
Time
• There may be a lack of time – for example, handovers at the end of a
colleague’s shift.
• Meetings can sometimes take too long and participants’ attention can wander.

GUIDANCE
Stress
• If workers and managers are under stress, they may not be actively listening
during group meetings and discussions.
• Lack of preparation can make it diffi cult for many people to make their
contribution with confi dence in a group discussion.

Helping Learners To Be Effective In Discussion

Discussion or conversation?
It is important to clarify the difference between conversation and discussion. The fi rst is social, without structure or purpose, and can go off track. Discussion should be where people share information about a subject, with a purpose. Here are some criteria to help when describing a discussion to learners. A discussion:
• must have a subject
• may be informal or formal
• can include a range of points of view
• involves questioning
• allows critical thinking and speaking
• is usually chaired or facilitated
• sometimes benefi ts from a debriefi ng.
Discussion can provide an opportunity for learners to think through a question or problem which appears straightforward but is actually more complex. For example,
a customer care situation in retail could involve a discussion of disabled access
to the clothes department. There are lifts so disabled customers can access the
department. However, things are not so simple: a wheelchair-bound person may
need help in the changing rooms. How will the learners deal with that situation?
An important aim of discussion is the acquisition of knowledge through sharing
ideas, listening to others and trying out their ideas. In conversation, people usually
take it in turns to speak but avoid silences or pauses, sometimes fi lling them
with phrases or chit-chat. A good discussion, however, will allow for silences to
develop and give participants thinking time. Because of this, discussion might feel
less comfortable to learners and tutors at the beginning, but it is important as a
chairperson or facilitator not to rush to fi ll these silences.


Active Listening

Active listening is also an essential part of participating in discussions; learners should therefore be encouraged to practise this. Here are some elements of active listening.
• Listen carefully to each speaker.
• Identify the main points that are being made.
• Do not be tempted to guess what a person is going to say before they say it.
• Pay attention to their non-verbal messages.
• Avoid distractions.
• Maintain eye contact.
• Don’t interrupt the speaker(s).
• Think about what the speaker is saying and be prepared to alter your viewpoint.
• Follow through any ideas or opinions others have expressed.
• Avoid making comments unrelated to the discussion.
• If you don’t understand what someone has said, ask.
• Try to make sure that everyone in the group has a chance to speak, and avoid
dominating the discussion.
• Make your own contribution as clearly and briefl y as possible.
• Don’t be afraid to put forward opposing views.
• Be supportive of others and build your confi dence in discussions together.

Non-verbal communication
In addition to active listening, employing other types of non-verbal communication can assist in moving on a discussion. Ask your learners to look out for and practise these tips at team meetings.
• Posture – someone sitting up straight shows interest in the discussion; turning
your body towards the speaker or chairperson can help to attract their attention as well as demonstrating attention to what they are saying.
• Eye contact – making eye contact can show or gain attention and help to interrupt a speaker or indicate that you wish to make a contribution.
• Gestures – a gesture can also attract someone’s attention. For example,
putting up your hand can indicate that you wish to speak.
• Facial expressions – can provide others with feedback during the discussion.

Helping learners prepare for discussion
Learners need not fi nd planning and preparation daunting, if they are given practice in writing two or three bullet points about a topic that will come up in a discussion. Their preparation can also include saying aloud the points they wish to make to help them fi nd the right words, tone and pace. A more formal discussion might require them to fi nd out some information in advance, by looking at a file, researching on the internet or asking a colleague. The handout and checklist that follow give learners some key points to bear in mind when they take part in a discussion.

Discussions
Preparation
• Be clear about the purpose of the discussion.
• Know who else is going to be there – and why.
• Think about what you want to say and need to fi nd out.
Making contributions
• Take your turn – it’s important that everyone has a chance to speak if they want to.
• Keep what you say short – stop talking when you’ve said enough.
• Don’t interrupt people – wait until they fi nish speaking.
• Stick to the point.
Listening
• Concentrate on what others say.
• Show that you are listening by looking at them.
• Avoid looking distracted.
• Be ready to ask questions to get more information or to
make suggestions.
Moving discussion forward
• Summarise where you’ve got to and check that
everyone has understood.
• Suggest ways forward or for someone to do something

Discussions checklist










When you take part in a discussion, ask yourself these questions
•  Why am I speaking? How will it help the discussion?
• Am I providing information or an opinion?
• Am I using words that the other people will understand?
• Am I speaking clearly?
• Have I got the volume right – loud enough, but not too loud?
• Am I saying things in a logical order?
• Am I sticking to the point?
• Do I look at other people when they speak?
• Do I notice how other people react to what I say?
• Do I stop talking when I’ve said enough?
Moving a discussion forward
We have already looked at the roles that people can adopt during discussions andit is usually the chairperson’s role to move on a discussion. Irrespective of the role a learner has in a team or group discussion, knowing how to progress the fl ow of a discussion effectively is still a useful skill.
Clear focus
Starting with a clear focus for a discussion is important, as is everyone’s clarity about the topic. It is better to start with a specifi c purpose than to have just a general chat. For example, discussing suggestions for improvements to the stock control system could elicit some positive contributions whereas a general chat about ‘the stock room’ will probably result in general moans.
Managing time
Backing up the specifi c purpose with a timed agenda and a clear aim that actions should result from the discussion can also help to keep the group focused. Alternatively, if a learner wishes to be more assertive, they can remind the group of the time available and that there are other matters to discuss.
Materials
Giving out relevant materials or handouts at appropriate points during the discussion can illustrate key points and also maintain participants’ interest in the topic.
Question and recap
The discussion should be kept on track by encouraging contributors to make relevant points. They should be encouraged to show the connection between their suggestion and the topic. Asking questions for clarifi cation can help to do this. In addition, regular summing up of the main points can help to remind the group where they have got to and deter any duplication or vagueness.
A range of views
A range of viewpoints contributes to a lively discussion and encouraging quieter participants to join in or make contributions is useful. This can also deter more confident speakers from dominating the discussion. The pace of discussion need not be hurried, however, and allowing silence and thinking time can also be productive in ensuring a wide-ranging review of the topic.

Closing down
A topic of discussion can be closed down effectively by saying, for example, ‘So, what have we agreed to do on that topic then?’ or ‘What shall we record in the action points for the meeting?’ On occasions where agreement cannot be reached in a meeting, it is sometimes necessary to resolve this another time – again, an action to be recorded.
Encouraging contributions
As well as giving learners confi dence in fi nding their own voice it is important to give them skills to involve others in discussion. Ways in which they could do this include:
• using inclusive phrases – for example, ‘What do you think about that?’
• asking open questions of other group members
• making eye contact with others
• allowing a pause or silence after their contribution to give others a chance to respond.

Talking To A Group

Learners often need support and practice in how to give a talk or presentation for a range of reasons. For instance:
• they may fi nd it hard to organise and structure material
• they may be nervous.
Many of the strategies for helping learners with discussions are also useful in developing their presentation skills.
• Being aware of the situation is as important for talks and presentations as it is for discussions. When preparing, learners will need to be aware of:
– the audience and level of formality of the talk or presentation
– the main purpose of the talk or presentation.
• Focusing on what they will say becomes even more important for a talk or presentation.
• Choosing appropriate language and speaking clearly will be essential. Being clear about the audience is important; learners will need to be able to judge:
• who their audience will be – for example, what interests them
• what the audience may already know about the topic
• what language will be appropriate and, in particular, which technical terms the audience will understand.
Building confi dence
It is very important to build up confi dence in moving towards the fi nal talk or presentation. This build-up takes place ideally over a period of time, to allow learners within the group to become more familiar with each other. This promotes trust and allows learners to be more relaxed. Confidence also grows in line with the amount of preparation. Although they may be nervous, the more a learner has thought through, planned and practised their talk, the more confi dent they are about it.
Structuring a talk or presentation
A talk or presentation must have a clear structure, usually beginning with an introduction and ending with a summary of the main points. Once a learner has a clear idea of how to structure a talk and has identifi ed its main sections, planning the content will be much easier.
• Encourage them to develop good note-making skills.
• Ask them to think about other things that they plan – a day at work, for example – and how they use structuring skills in this.
• Give them chances to practise structuring and organising material under headings. Rehearsing Confidence comes with practice, and it is important to try out your talk – to check how it flows, whether it fi ts the time available, and. whether the delivery is trouble-free. Constructive feedback can be very useful here (see Teaching points below). Using visual aids It is often good practice to use visual aids as part of a talk or presentation. You can help learners by discussing:
• the range of visual aids available – including handouts, fl ipcharts, slides, objects
and even computer-based presentations
• what makes for effective visual aids – for example, the number of words on a
slide and clear labels on diagrams.

Teaching points
Presenting to a group frightens most people. It is a diffi cult and stressful experience that you are aiming to make easier and less stressful. So, fi rst, ask them to discuss (perhaps in small groups) how they feel about having to stand up in front of other people and give a talk. People’s responses are generally not about why it is hard, but limited to statements like ‘I couldn’t do that’ or ‘I’d rather die.’ Share something of yourself – you are in front of this group and they don’t make it hard for you. So build on that and confi rm that it does get easier with practice.  Success breeds success. This section will help you to take your learners through the main stages needed to prepare a short talk or presentation. It is best to start with simple, non-threatening activities which do not involve a lot of preparation to get learners used to talking in front of others before moving on to preparing for and giving a talk. The ‘Just a minute’ activity gets people talking to a group without realising that they are. Because it’s fun, learners don’t register what they have done, quite naturally and enjoyably, until it’s over. So this fi rst activity is simply a confi dence-builder. The next activity – ‘It’s so easy!’ – asks learners to talk for only 1 or 2 minutes on a familiar subject without the need for any visual aids. It provides an opportunity for them to use simple planning techniques of cue cards and mind maps. The aim is purely to get the learner used to standing and speaking, with cue cards as a safety net. ‘Planning the talk or presentation’ provides a detailed checklist of what they will need in their plan. It is followed by a practice session or ‘dry run’ of their talk. This is an essential stage because we are aiming for ‘mastery’ of the skills involved in giving a talk or presentation and this cannot be guaranteed by doing it just once. You will need to discuss with learners appropriate ways of giving feedback to each other that is not damaging. They may be called upon to do this during practice sessions.
Add to that the information on visual aids and the learners then prepare for the final activity, which is the full (assessed) 4-minute talk or 10-minute presentation, including an image or a visual aid.

Planning a talk or presentation
Structuring and planning a talk or presentation is no different from planning anything else. Breaking the overall task down into manageable steps makes the task less daunting. This is the list of steps:
• identify a topic or subject
• think about the audience
• set aims
• research the topic
• structure the material
• gather visual aids/props
• prepare the room and equipment.
You may like to use sector-related magazines or publications to help learners find ideas for a topic.
Purpose and audience
There are two important preliminary steps to carry out before planning what to sa and how to say it.
• Work out the purpose of the presentation or talk, because the purpose
affects the content, the shape and the style. Is it to:
– inform (give information)
– persuade (get others to accept an argument)
–  make a case (explain options and implications)?
• Find out about the audience, because this affects the way the material is presented, the content detail and the level of the language (whether members of the audience all understand certain technical terms and jargon). So to plan the right level, style and shape of a presentation or talk, fi nd out:
– how many people will be there
– who they are – for example, whether you already know them, what interests
them, why they are coming
– what they already know about the topic.
Once the subject, purpose and audience for the talk are clear, learners need to spend time researching it and making notes – they may like to use a mind map or index cards for this. Learners can collect information quickly and easily from textbooks, trade journals, catalogues and the internet. The latter is a good source of pictures or illustrations. Structuring a talk or presentation
Once a learner has a clear idea of the overall structure of a talk and has identifi ed its main sections, planning the content is much easier. Any talk or presentation has a clear structure, a straightforward set of three stages:
• an introduction
• the body of the talk or presentation
• an ending, with a summary of the main points.
Now that the learners have gathered some information on their subject, they may need some help to organise it into a logical order and write brief notes on each item.
Sector-Specific Examples
The Key Skills Support Programme website contains ‘How to’ worksheets which include examples of plans for a short talk for a wide range of sectors. Details of other useful resources.
Using Visual Aids
Images and visual aids can make a real contribution to a talk, but only if they are relevant and used with confi dence. Learners will need help to identify the difference between selecting just any image and choosing one that illustrates their talk appropriately. You can do this by going through journals, magazines or trade articles and asking learners to match an image to a given topic. Encourage learners to think about the range of possible images, visual aids and presentation media, and the ways they can be used. Point out that they don’t have to be electronic. A well-chosen picture or item to show to people can do a huge amount to add interest and life to a presentation.
Some visual aids lend themselves more naturally to some sectors and activities.
For example:
• display tables work well in a nursery or school
• actual tools for topics like motor vehicle or carpentry are generally better than pictures
• flowcharts are relevant to many administration processes
• photographs can be a powerful way to bring issues like health and safety to life.

Practising The Talk Or Presentation
Before learners practise their talk or presentation, spend a little time going over some key tips and try out as many of the techniques as you can.
Body language
Stand up straight, head up, look towards the back of the room to project the voice, make eye contact with the audience, adopt a relaxed but confi dent stance, avoid crossing arms and legs, use gestures and posture to emphasise points, face the audience not the screen or chart, smile.
Appearance
A clean, tidy personal appearance will boost a learner’s confi dence; appropriate clothing for the talk is also important, but a business suit is not required.
Voice
Speak slowly and avoid rushing your words, speak clearly, use a lively tone of voice, loud enough for everyone to hear.
Language
This must be right for the subject and audience, avoid informalities, avoid jargon, keep it simple, signpost the main points of your talk: ‘I am now going to move on to…’, ‘I’m going to cover the following topics…’.
Visual aids
Use them to add interest and at appropriate times during the talk but avoid over-use and distracting the audience.


Handouts
These can provide useful information for the audience – do not give them out at the same time as you are starting your talk or the audience will be looking at the paper and not at you!
Structure
The structure should be clear to the audience. Remember to have a beginning, a middle and an end; follow the ‘speaker’s code’: say what you are going to say…say it… say what you’ve just said.

Getting More From The Toolkit

Giving Feedback
Giving feedback to individuals about their speaking and listening skills must be  handled sensitively. It is important to do this in a way that does not undermine a  person’s confi dence or self-esteem – a learner may be perfectly happy about how they are communicating and so might feel unfairly criticised. You need to strike a balance between positive and supportive comments while  ensuring that your learners develop a clear idea of both their existing skills and  those they could improve. Because speaking and listening is more than a set of skills – it is about how we  relate to others – you may fi nd that some learners feel challenged when they become aware of how their behaviour impacts on other people. Think carefully about the type of feedback you will give to people in a group, and  what feedback is better given on a one-to-one basis. Whatever the context, there are some guidelines which apply to all feedback.
• Give feedback on the behaviour, not the person.
• Focus on the positive  – and be careful when you say ‘but’ as the learner may  only hear criticism.
• Make sure that feedback is constructive and gives the learner ideas for what  they can do next.
• Take into account the individual’s level of confi dence when giving feedback.
•  Don’t overwhelm a learner with too much feedback – be selective.
• Give time for the learner to assimilate the feedback and ask questions.
• Show empathy, warmth, respect and genuine care when giving feedback.

Individual learner needs
The majority of your learners should be able to take part in the activities in the  toolkit with little or no diffi culty. However, some will have specifi c needs when it  comes to developing their speaking and listening skills. These are some example
• A literal interpretation of language is common with learners with language  impairment associated with autistic spectrum disorders.
• A ‘domination’ of conversation and group discussion, often in the form of  asking a large number of questions, can occur with learners with delayed  auditory memory or poor attention.
• Partially sighted learners may be unable to see non-verbal signals or be able  use eye contact to show they are listening.
• Some learners with autistic spectrum disorders or mental health problems ma find non-verbal communication and eye contact particularly diffi cult.
•  Learners with learning diffi culties or disabilities may be insensitive or  hypersensitive to tone of voice.
• You should be aware of cultural issues such as eye contact in non-verbal  communication.
• Learners with bad previous experiences of oral communication – perhaps  with peers or offi cials – may take time to build up their trust and may be  uncomfortable with personal disclosure.